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Fundamentals of Option Pricing
When one begins to consider an option, it is very important to figure out how the premium is calculated. Option premiums depend on a variety of factors including the time left to expiry as well as the price of the underlying security. There are two parts to an option premium: intrinsic value and time value. Consequently, several different factors have an influence on intrinsic and time value.
Intrinsic Value
Intrinsic value is the difference between the market price of the
underlying shares at any given moment in time and the
exercise price of the option. The following are a couple of
examples for call and put options.
Call Options
For example, say MicroCeuticals (MC) April $25.00 call options
are trading at a premium of $6.00 and MC shares are trading
at $30.00 per share, the option has $5.00 intrinsic value.
The latter is true because the option taker has the right
to purchase the shares for $25.00, which is $5.00 lower
than the market price. Such options, which have intrinsic
value, are said to be ‘in-the-money’. In this example,
the remaining $1.00 of the premium is time value ($6.00 - $5.00).
If the shares of MC were trading at $23.00, intrinsic value
would effectively be zero because the $25.00 call option contract
would only enable the taker to purchase the shares for $25.00
per share, which is $2.00 higher than the market price. When
the share price is less than the exercise price of the call option,
the option is considered to be ‘out-of-the-money’.
It is important to remember that call options convey to the
taker the right, but NOT the obligation to purchase the underlying shares.
If the share price is below the exercise price, then it is probably better to
purchase the shares on the share market and let the options lapse.
Put Options
Put options work in the opposite way to calls. If the exercise price
is greater than the market price of the share, then the put option is
in-the-money and possesses intrinsic value. Exercising the in-the-money
put option allows the taker to sell the shares for a higher price than the
current market price.
For example, an MC April $40.00 put option allows the holder to sell MC
shares for $40.00 when the current market price for MC is $35.00. This
option has a premium of $5.50, which consists of $5.00 of intrinsic value
and 50 cents time value. A put option is out-of-the-money when the
share price is above the exercise price, since a taker will not exercise
the put to sell the shares below the current share price.
As you may recall, put options convey the right, but not the obligation
to sell the underlying shares. If the share price is above the exercise price
then it is probably better to sell the shares on the share market and let
the option lapse.
It should be noted that when the share price equals the market price,
the call and put options are said to be ‘at-the-money’.
Time Value
Time value represents the amount that you are prepared to pay
for the possibility that the market might move in your favor
throughout the life of the option. It represents and extra payment
to the writer of the option to offset the risk that the underlying
share will move, and result in a loss to the writer. Time value will
vary with in-the-money, at-the-money, and out-of-the-money options
and is greatest for at-the-money options. As the time of expiry draws
near and the opportunities for the option to become profitable decline,
the time value decreases. This dilution of option value is termed
time decay. Time value does not decay at a constant rate,
but becomes more rapid, possibly even exponential, as one
gets closer to expiry.
Time value is influenced by the following factors, among others:
time to expiry, interest rates, market volatility (which you can quantify
using Bollinger Bands), dividend payments, and market expectations.
The time value of an option is greater the longer the time to expiry.
The premium will be higher under conditions of high market volatility.
Again, Bollinger Bands are a great way to measure market volatility.
This is a consequence of the wider range over which the stock or commodity
can potentially move. As interest rates increase, call option premiums will be driven up,
while put option premiums will be pushed down. Supply and demand will determine the
market value of all options. During times of strong demand, premiums will undoubtedly
be higher.
Hopefully this article will provide investors and traders considering purchasing
or selling options with more information. Although technical analysis is
useful in attempting to predict market movement, fundamental analysis of
options via the use of the factors described above may provide many traders
with benefits as well.
Joshua M. Kunken is Chief Currency Analyst for ForeignMarketWatch.com.
His articles have also been featured at ForexTrack.
The Exploding Trans National Land Market Space — Simplified by The PropertyIndex.com Company
There are a range of properties in Spain for sale on Property Index, from villas to apartments.
Even if Property Index is still a rather young firm, (they were established only in March 2007), they have quickly proven their mettle. On closer look, they’re a extraordinarily simple firm dedicated to offering instruction to any individual dedicated to let, sell, rent or buy property in a wide selection of areas across the globe. Their affirmation is to lend you a hand to hit upon smack what’s looked for quick plus, of course, in a trouble-free manner. Real estate can easily be purchased in many parts of the world now, one of the swankiest areas being real property you can purchase in Spain. It’s a no brainer to list the mega cool realty available in Spain, the explanation for hunting for estate here is the houses and apartments you can purchase and the chance to live between this robust and passionate people.
It is one of the most popular regions now, and considering the lovely landscape and wonderful sunshine that surrounds you all year, how could you ever say no? Real estate in Spain is immersed in culture, art and history, this area of the world has been and still is home to quite a number of sophisticated nations. Around twenty years ago there’d be only very few of British people who are looking for realty in Spain. Just ask anyone who has chosen to remove to Spain and they’ll tell you the same thing. There are those who would will call it a transient trend and others will call it a more or less a fixation! Buyers that are willing to remove over here generally range from yuppies in search of a perspective to senior citizens looking to put their feet up.
Do bear in mind, though, that there could well be perplexities when looking to buy realty abroad — as is to be expected, there will be hundreds of disparate procedures when strategising, calling in or completing. If you miss out on just a single minor procedure this is certain to bring about sweeping perplexities not to forget, more importantly, a financial trouncing. Obviously and expectably with this favored destination, realty might be quite upscale in this location and that is absolutely because of the increasing demand. Nevertheless buyers actually are spoilt in such a location boasting such a pleasant countryside and view. It’s presently got the whole shebang a property buyer may ever require and lots more.
5 Steps in Finding Stock Investment
We all know that opportunity does not come knocking every day. The phrase ‘lightning never strike twice on the same place’ illustrates the point. Investors are successful because they can identify opportunity as well as the courage to act on it. This article is written to identify what constitutes a good turnaround stock investment. Here are several steps necessary in finding your next stock investment.
Scour the 52 week-low list - This is a useful preliminary screening where you identify stocks that has fallen. While stocks that fall have their own specific problems, it is generally better to buy low rather than high.
Calculate Its Net Cash. The next step would be to gauge the strength of the company’s balance sheet. This is done by calculating the company’s net cash. Net cash is calculated by adding cash equivalents, short term investments and long-term investments in the asset column and subtract it with long-term debt. If possible, you need to find stocks that has a positive net cash valued at 10% of its market capitalization or more. All the companies in our stock portfolio has positive net cash.
Calculate Earning Per Share Going Forward. This step is critical in determining the fair value of the common stock. It is also the hardest part to master in stock investing. Generally, you predict earning per share by constructing your own pro-forma income statements where all its components are based on your prediction of the company. At the bottom of the income statement is the profit/loss figure in which you can convert to earning per share.
Calculate Fair Value. When you obtain your earning per share figure, you can then calculate the fair value of the common stock. Fair Value differs for various investors depending on their investment objective. With current interest rate environment, I set the fair value when the company can give me a return on investment (ROI) of roughly 7.5% year after year. To give you an idea, an ROI of 1 % means that for every $ 100 you invest, you will get $ 1 back annually. For common stocks, this means that for every $ 13.4 of investment, common stock holders will get $ 1 in profit. As you may know, this translates into a fair Price Earning Ratio of 13.4.
Determine Your Entry Point. You have found the fair value of your stock. It is now the time to decide where and what price you want to buy your investment. Investors’ job is to make money. Therefore, we should not buy a stock at its fair value. We should sell at fair value or if heaven permits, at overvalued level. But, we should buy at below fair value. This depends again on your investment philosophy. If taking 10% return is fine with you, then you can buy a stock that is trading at 10% below fair value. I personally think that investors should buy a stock that is at least 30% below its fair value. This is because of the uncertainty in the earning per share figure of a common stock. As you may remember, we need to predict this earning per share at step # 3. We compensate our inability to forecast earning per share by buying our stocks 30% below fair value.
Other investors might have different ways of picking for their stock investment. But the basic idea is still the same. They want to buy lower than their expected sale price. In our case, our selling price is when a stock reaches its fair value. A lot of investors mistook fair value as the buying point. Hopefully, reading this will change your perception about that.
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